The International Network of Low-Carbon Hydrogen
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36253/bsgi-7622Keywords:
low-carbon hydrogen, international networks, renewable energyAbstract
Low-carbon hydrogen can become a fundamental energy carrier in the decarbonisation of the global energy system. However, this process requires the development of infrastructure for the production and transport of hydrogen within an international exchange network. At the same time, many technical, economic, and geopolitical constraints slow this process, which is made even more complex by its structure, which involves different actors and requires significant investment. This complexity therefore leads to a slowdown in the process, as many uncertainties are essentially linked to a lack of positive (virtuous) feedback between demand and investment. This work analyses the locational aspects and the economic, technical, and geopolitical constraints that favour or hinder the international network creation process. Drawing on announced development projects, national strategies and agreements already in place between different countries in relation to hydrogen, the paper also outlines the possible structure of the international low-carbon hydrogen network.
Metrics
References
Anouti, Y., Elborai, S., Kombargi, R., Hage, R. (2020). The dawn of green hydrogen: Maintaining the GCC’s edge in a decarbonized world. S.l., Strategy& Part of the PwC network.
Blondeel, B., Bradshaw, M. J., Bridge, G., Kuzemko, C. (2021). The geopolitics of energy system transformation: A review. Geography Compass, 15 (7), e12580, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12580 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12580
BloombergNEF. (2020). Hydrogen Economy Outlook. S.l., Bloomberg Finance L.P.
Borruso, G., Mazzarino, M., Tadini, M. (2024). Reti di trasporto, logistica e catene di fornitura: una lettura geografica. Geotema, 76 (3), 3-5.
BP. (2023). Energy Outlook 2023. S.l., BP p.l.c.
Braun, J. F. et al. (2023). Clean Hydrogen Deployment in the Europe-MENA Region from 2030 to 2050. S. l., Fraunhofer-CINES.
Collins, L. (2024). International Maritime Organization formally allows ammonia cargoes to be used as shipping fuel for first time. Hydrogen Insight. https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/international-maritime-organization-formally-allows-ammonia-cargoes-to-be-used-as-shipping-fuel-for-first-time/2-1-1751613
Commissione Europea. (2020). Una strategia per l’idrogeno per un’Europa climaticamente neutra. Bruxelles, COM (2020) 301 final.
Day, P. (2024). Europe’s electrolyzer firms fear China’s rapid expansion. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/europes-electrolyzer-firms-fear-chinas-rapid-expansion-2024-09-18/
DNV. (2022). Hydrogen Forecast to 2050. Energy Transition Outlook 2022. Høvik, DNV.
DNV. (2024). Energy Transition Outlook. New Power Systems. Electricity, Renewables Generation, and Grids through to 2050. Høvik, DNV.
EIA (Energy Information Administration). (2023). International Energy Outlook 2023. https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/ieo/data.php
Elecseed Pty Ltd. (2024). Kumbarilla Renewable Energy Park – EPBC Act Draft Preliminary Documentation (Report).
Energy Institute. (2024). Statistical Review of World Energy 2024. London, Energy Institute. https://www.energyinst.org/statistical-review
Essa, E., Janzow, N., Tatarenko, O. (2024). Weak Emissions Accounting Can Undermine Hydrogen’s Role in Global Decarbonization. S.l., Green Hydrogen Catapult. https://greenh2catapult.com/weak-emissions-accounting-can-undermine-hydrogens-role-global-decarbonization/
European Commission. (2023). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) of 10.2.2023 supplementing Directive (EU) 2018/2001. Bruxelles, C(2023) 1087.
European Court of Auditors. (2024). The EU’s Industrial Policy on Renewable Hydrogen: Legal Framework Has Been Mostly Adopted – Time for A Reality Check. Lussemburgo, European Court of Auditors.
European University Institute. (2022). The EU Green Deal. Research Project Report, 2022/06. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5135/eusj.2022.30
Fleming, R. (2022). Hydrogen Networks: Networks of the Future? In Fleming, R., de Graaf, K., Hancher, L., Woerdman, E. (Eds.). A Force of Energy: Essays in Energy Law in Honour of Professor Martha Roggenkamp. Groningen, University of Groningen Press, 121-130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21827/61eff4099c992 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21827/61eff4099c992
Flood, W. (2012). The hydrogen economy - global solution, or pie in the sky? Energy & Environment, 23 (6-7), 1097-1104. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43735155 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1260/0958-305X.23.6-7.1097
Flowers, S. (2023). How commercial is low-carbon hydrogen? Wood Mackenzie. https://www.woodmac.com
Franzmann, D., Heinrichs, H., Lippkau, F., Addanki, T., Winkler, C., Buchenberg, P., Hamacher, T., Blesl, M., Linßen, J., Stolten, D. (2023). Green hydrogen cost-potentials for global trade. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 48 (85), 33062-33076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.05.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.05.012
G20. (2023a). One Earth, One Family, One Future: G20 Energy Transitions Ministers’ Meeting Outcome Document and Chair’s Summary. Goa, G20.
G20. (2023b). One Earth, One Family, One Future: G20 New Delhi Leaders’ Declaration. Nuova Dehli, G20.
German Federal Republic. (2023). National Hydrogen Strategy 2023. Berlino, Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK).
Goldthau, A. (2014). Rethinking the governance of energy infrastructure: Scale, decentralization and polycentrism. Energy Research & Social Science, 1, 134-140. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.02.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.02.009
Goldthau, A. (2017). The G20 must govern the shift to low-carbon energy. Nature, 546, 203-205. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/546203a DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/546203a
Goldthau, A., Keim, M., Westphal, K. (2018). The geopolitics of energy transformation: governing the shift: transformation dividends, systemic risks and new uncertainties. SWP Comment, 42.
Green Hydrogen Organization. (2023). Green Hydrogen Standard: The Global Standard for Green Hydrogen and Green Hydrogen Derivatives, Including Green Ammonia. Ginevra, Green Hydrogen Organization (GH2).
Gulli, C., Heid, B., Noffsinger, J., Waardenburg, M., Wilthaner, M. (2024). Global Energy Perspective 2023: Hydrogen outlook. McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and-gas/our-insights/global-energy-perspective-2023-hydrogen-outlook
Hammerschlag, R., Mazza, P. (2005). Questioning hydrogen. Energy Policy, 33 (16), 2039-2043. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2004.04.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2004.04.010
Hand, E. (2023). Hidden hydrogen. Science, 379 (6633), 630-636. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adh1477 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adh1477
Hydrogen Council, McKinsey & Company. (2023a). Hydrogen Insights 2023. S.l., Hydrogen Council.
Hydrogen Council, McKinsey & Company. (2023b). Global Hydrogen Flows - 2023 Update: Considerations for Evolving Global Hydrogen Trade. S.l., Hydrogen Council.
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2019). The Future of Hydrogen. Parigi, International Energy Agency.
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2022a). Global Hydrogen Review. Parigi, International Energy Agency.
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2022b). World Energy Outlook. Parigi, International Energy Agency.
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2023a). Energy Technology Perspectives 2023. Parigi, International Energy Agency.
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2023b). Levelised Cost of Hydrogen Maps. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/levelised-cost-of-hydrogen-maps
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2023c). Hydrogen Production Projects Interactive Map. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/hydrogen-production-projects-interactive-map
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2023d). Global Hydrogen Review 2023. Parigi, International Energy Agency.
IEA (International Energy Agency). (2024). Global Hydrogen Review 2024. Parigi, International Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2019). Hydrogen: A Renewable Energy Perspective. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2020). Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction: Scaling up Electrolysers to Meet the 1.5 °C Climate Goal. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2022a). Global Hydrogen Trade to Meet the 1.5 °C Climate Goal – Part I: Trade Outlook for 2050 and Way Forward. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2022b). Global Hydrogen Trade to Meet the 1.5 °C Climate Goal – Part II: Technology Review of Hydrogen Carriers. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2022c). Global Hydrogen Trade to Meet the 1.5 °C Climate Goal – Part III: Green Hydrogen Cost and Potential. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2022d). Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2023). World Energy Transition Outlook 2023. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). (2024). Green Hydrogen Strategy: A Guide to Design. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency), Bluerisk. (2023). Water for Hydrogen Production. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency and Bluerisk.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency), WTO (World Trade Organization). (2023). International Trade and Green Hydrogen: Supporting the Global Transition to A Low-Carbon Economy. Abu Dhabi, International Renewable Energy Agency; Ginevra, World Trade Organization.
Kardaś, S., Kędzierski, M. (2021). A hydrogen alliance? The potential for German-Russian cooperation in hydrogen energy. OSW Commentary, 383, https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2021-03-03/a-hydrogen-alliance-potential-german-russian-cooperation
Lazard. (2023). Lazard’s Levelized Cost of Hydrogen Analysis – Version 3.0. https://www.lazard.com/media/nltb551p/lazards-lcoeplus-april-2023.pdf
Lentschig, H., Patonia, A., Quitzow, R. (2025). Multilateral governance in a global hydrogen economy: An overview of main actors and institutions, key challenges and future pathways. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 97, 76-87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.11.393 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.11.393
Li, J., Wei, Y. -M., Liu, L., Li, X., Yan, R. (2022). The carbon footprint and cost of coal-based hydrogen production with and without carbon capture and storage technology in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 362, 132514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132514 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132514
Lu, X., McElroy, M. B., Kiviluoma, J. (2009). Global potential for wind-generated electricity. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106 (27), 10933-10938. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0904101106 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0904101106
Martinez-Alier, J. (2009). Ecologia dei poveri. La lotta per la giustizia ambientale. Milano, Jaca Book.
McKay, D. J. C. (2009). Sustainable Energy - Without the Hot Air. Cambridge, UIT Cambridge.
McKinsey & Company. (2022). The Energy Transition: A Region-by-Region Agenda for Near-Term Action. S.l., McKinsey & Company.
McKinsey & Company. (2023). Global Energy Perspective. S.l., McKinsey & Company.
McKinsey & Company. (2024). Global Energy Perspective. S.l., McKinsey & Company.
Millard, R. (2023). Will there be enough cables for the clean energy transition? Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/c88c0c6d-c4b2-4c16-9b51-7b8beed88d75
Müller, F., Tunn, J., Kalt, T. (2022). Hydrogen justice. Environmental Research Letters, 17 (11), 115006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac991a DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac991a
Nadimi, E., Przybyła, G., Lewandowski, M. T., Adamczyk, W. (2023). Effects of ammonia on combustion, emissions, and performance of the ammonia/diesel dual-fuel compression ignition engine. Journal of the Energy Institute, 107, 101158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2022.101158 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2022.101158
National Academy of Technologies of France. (2020). The Role of Hydrogen in a Decarbonised Economy (Report).
Pasqualetti, M. J., Brown, M. A. (2014). Ancient discipline, modern concern: Geographers in the field of energy and society. Energy Research & Social Science, 1, 122-133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.03.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.03.016
Sekine, Y., Higo, T. (2021). Recent Trends on the Dehydrogenation Catalysis of Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC): A Review. Topics in Catalysis, 64, 470-480. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11244-021-01452-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11244-021-01452-x
S&P Global Commodity Insights. (2024). Platts Hydrogen Price Wall. https://www.spglobal.com/energy/en/news-research/infographics/content-design-infographics/platts-hydrogen-price-wall
Scholten, D., Bazilian, M., Overland, I., Westphal, K. (2020). The geopolitics of renewables: New board, new game. Energy Policy, 138, 111059. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111059 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111059
Solargis. (2024). Free Maps and GIS Data, https://solargis.com/resources/free-maps-and-gis-data
Thompson, G. (2021). How green hydrogen can ensure Australia’s place in the sun. Wood Mackenzie. https://www.woodmac.com/news/opinion/how-green-hydrogen-can-ensure-australias-place-in-the-sun/
Tinacci Mossello, M. (1990). Geografia economica. Bologna, Il Mulino.
U.S. Department of Energy. (2023). Clean Hydrogen Production Standard (CHPS) Guidance. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/docs/hydrogenprogramlibraries/pdfs/clean-hydrogen-production-standard-guidance.pdf
USGS (United States Geological Survey). (2023). The Potential for Geologic Hydrogen for Next-Generation Energy. https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/potential-geologic-hydrogen-next-generation-energy
Van de Graaf, T., Overland, I., Scholten, D., Westphal, K. (2020). The new oil? The geopolitics and international governance of hydrogen. Energy Research & Social Science, 70, 101667. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101667 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101667
Vezzoni, R. (2024). How “clean” is the hydrogen economy? Tracing the connections between hydrogen and fossil fuels. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 50, 100817. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2024.100817 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2024.100817
WEC (World Energy Council). (2020). Five Steps for Energy Storage. Londra, World Energy Council.
WEC (World Energy Council). (2021a). Hydrogen Demand and Cost Dynamics. Londra, World Energy Council.
WEC (World Energy Council). (2021b). National Hydrogen Strategy. Londra, World Energy Council.
WEC (World Energy Council). (2025). International Hydrogen Strategies. https://www.weltenergierat.de/publikationen/studien/international-hydrogen-strategies
World Bank. (2024). Scaling Hydrogen Financing for Development. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099022024121527489
Yap, J., McLellan, B. (2023). A Historical Analysis of Hydrogen Economy Research, Development, and Expectations, 1972 to 2020. Environments, 10 (1), 11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10010011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10010011
Zhao, T., van Dorsten, B. (2024). The competitive edge of China’s electrolysers. Wood Mackenzie. https://www.woodmac.com/news/opinion/the-competitive-edge-of-chinas-electrolysers/
Zulfhazli, Keeley, A. R., Coulibaly, T. Y., Managi, S. (2024). Analysis of prospective demand for hydrogen in the road transportation sector: Evidence from 14 countries. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 56, 853-863. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.12.246 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.12.246
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Domenico de Vincenzo
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
